Aflatoxicosis

Aflatoxins (AF) are a class of mycotoxins, produced by fungal species of the genus Aspergillus (flavus and parasiticus) and Penicillium puberulum, that are often found in the ingredients used to make poultry feed. Foods known to be at a high risk of aflatoxin contamination include corn, cottonseed, peanuts, sorghum, tree nuts, and wheat. There are four main aflatoxins of concern: aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2); AFB1 is the most common and biologically active. Crops can become contaminated with aflatoxins while growing in the field, during harvesting, transportation, mixing, or during storage. It grows best at temperatures of 80 to 90°F (26.6 to 32.2°C) and can survive in temperatures as low as 40°F (4.4°C). The mold also requires a high moisture content and can emerge with 15% moisture content.

The FDA and the EU regulate the number of aflatoxins present in human food, animal feed, and animal feed ingredients.

• For chick starter and grower feeds, corn, and peanut products, excluding cottonseed meal: Must contain less than 20 ppb
• For laying hen feed and other mature poultry: Must contain less than 100 ppb
• For cottonseed meal intended for all types and ages of poultry: Must contain less than 300 ppb

The adverse effect of aflatoxins depends on the age, species, nutritional status of ducks as well as the dose and length of time it was consumed. Aflatoxicosis refers to poisoning from ingestion of aflatoxins in contaminated food or feed. Both acute and chronic aflatoxicosis can occur, however the chronic form is the most prevalent. Chronic aflatoxicosis occurs as a result of prolonged intake of low levels of aflatoxins in a duck's diet. Resulting adverse effects include:

• Immunosuppression: Increases susceptibility to secondary infection by opportunistic pathogens.
• Reduced vaccine effectiveness: Decreases resistance against viral pathogens, increasing the risk of acquiring the disease they are getting vaccinated against.
• Gastrointestinal tract damage: Causes erosion and roughening of the gizzard lining, resulting in decreased absorption of nutrients, stunted growth, nutrient-deficient related syndromes, and lowered feed conversion.
• Liver damage: The primary site of toxicity due to aflatoxins is the liver. Exposure causes hepatic lesions and enlargement of the liver as well as fatty liver.
• Production losses: Decreases egg production and egg quality in laying ducks and hatchable eggs in breeding ducks.

Preventative Absorbents

Absorbent/Product	Reference
Allium spp (Garlic) extract	El-Barbary MI 2016
Bacillus subtilis	Zhang L et al., 2016; Jia R et al., 2016; Fan Y et al., 2015; Fan Y et al., 2013
Beer fermentation residue (BFR)	Bovo et al., 2015
Bentonite clay	Shannon TA et al., 2016; Fowler J et al., 2015; Rosa CA et al., 2001
Berevibacillus laterosporus	Bagherzadeh K et al., 2012
Cactus cladode extract (CCE)	Brahmi D et al., 2011
Cellulosimicrobium funkei	Liu J et al., 2016; Sun LH et al., 2015
Citrus fruit oil	Kumar DS et al., 2015
Curcuma longa (Tumeric) extract	Gholami-Ahangaran et al., 2016; El-Mahalaway AM 2015; Rangsaz et al., 2011; Yarru LP et al., 2009; Gowda NK et al., 2008
Dried banana peel	Shar ZH et al., 2016
Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilcate	Chen X et al., 2014; Neef DV et al., 2013
Lactobacillus	Monson MS et al., 2015; Rawal S et al., 2014
Mycofix Select	Lee JT et al., 2012
Nanosilver	Gholami-Ahangaran M et al., 2014, 2013
Natural honey	Yaman T et al., 2016
Neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water (NEW)	Jardon-Xicotencatl S et al., 2015
Nigella sativa (Black cumin)	Khan SH et al., 2013; Aydin R et al., 2008
Resveratrol	Sridhar M et al., 2015
Rosmarinus officinalis	Manafi et al., 2014
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast Extract)	Magnoli AP et al., 2016; Pizzolitto RP et al., 2013; Pizzolitto RP et al., 2012; Matur E et al., 2011; Matur E et al., 2010
Selenium	Chen et al., 2014
Sodium bentonite	Monge Mdel et al., 2016; Miazzo R et al., 2005
Urtica dioica seed (Stinging nettle) extract	Uyar A et al., 2016